Written by: Kelly L. Hunter
Absolute Idealism has left a lasting impression on Westernized culture. Due to the great influence that Hegelian Idealism had over the historical development of Continental Philosophy’s theories concerning existentialism and phenomenology, philosophical thought suddenly began to spread rapidly throughout different parts of the world and has developed into what we know of it today. It was Hegel along with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling who first introduced German Absolute Idealism as a response to Kant’s theories.
Kant believed that knowledge of experience was determined by the different categories that one’s mind imposes on objects of experience (Moore and Bruder, 2005). Hegel on the other hand believed that the history of the cosmos were the essential expression of thought. “Absolute Idealism, as this philosophy is called, attempted to achieve a complete and unified conception of all reality, a conception that gave meaning to each and every aspect in relationship to the sum total” (Moore and Bruder, 2005, p 143).
Georg Hegel was not admired by all and in fact was called a revolting charlatan as well as unintelligent and disgusting by Arthur Schopenhauer during some point in his career. Hegel often found himself with little admirers and in one instance gave a speech to a vacant lecture hall. It was actually Marxism that started off as a sort of branch-off or subsidiary of Absolute Idealism during the 19th and 20th centuries which began the transgression toward the more contemporary Continental Philosophy’s like existentialism and phenomenology.
Much like Hegel, Marx found himself faced with opposing theories from fellow philosophers and colleagues. Bertrand Russell was quoted as saying that “Marx is nothing more than Hegel mixed with British economic theory” (Moore and Bruder, 2005, p 159). Moore and Bruder (2005) attribute much of post-Hegel philosophies to the actual response that individuals had to Hegel’s theories. It was during this time that the response to Hegel’s philosophical theories transformed into various other forms in English speaking countries as well as in Europe.
This transformation caused a separation or split between philosophies during the 20th century. Much like a domino effect, these events led to the introduction and predominance of what was said to be analytic philosophy in England; which eventually found its way to the United States and other English speaking countries, where it gained popularity as well. “The response to Hegelian idealism on the European continent was quite different, however, and is known (at least in English-speaking countries) as Continental philosophy” (Moore and Bruder, 2005, p 159-160).
Existentialism and phenomenology are just two branches of Continental philosophy; however, they are two of the most influential elements of this particular school of thought. It has been said that both of these deep-rooted philosophical themes can be traced back as far as Pre-Socratic times. These two schools of thought have had enormous amounts of influence over one another. It has been said that the influence was so grand, it brought together two of philosophy’s most influential Continental philosophers, Martin Heidegger (a phenomenologist) and Jean-Paul Sartre (an existentialist).
Principle issues surrounding existentialism focus on the following: academic and traditional philosophies are considered to be lame and off-base from real life concerns; philosophy must focus on the individual’s experiences and struggles in the world; the world is far to complex to be understood by the mind through philosophical debate; the world is considered to be absurd due to the fact that no explanation can be accurately given as to why things are as the are; “Senselessness, emptiness, triviality, separation, and inability to communicate pervade human existence, giving birth to anxiety, dread, self-doubt, and despair” (Moore and Bruder, 2005, p 160); and it is a choice for the individual as to how they will live their life in a world that is considered to be absurd and irrational.
Soren Kierkegaard disagreed with Hegel on many levels and believed that it was important for humans to make their own choices in life thus leading to a life full of significant meaning and experience. According to Moore and Bruder (2005), Kierkegaard believed that “Philosophy must speak to the anguished existence of the individual who lives in an irrational world and who must make important decisions in that world” (p 161). Kierkegaard was not alone; a man by the name of Friedrich Nietzsche became convinced that the world was ruled by sheer cosmic will and not by way of reason. Nietzsche too argued Hegel’s philosophies and idealism and anything remotely close to such ideals.
Nietzsche’s philosophies focused on the “will-to-power” and he believed that most people were miserable in their lives. It has been said that Nietzsche’s work was extremely influential to the Continental philosophies of that time. Nietzsche did not believe in such things as absolute truth or facts and instead believed that the world is full of uncertainties and only interpretations of events were real. Philosophy was not the only thing being influenced by these schools of thought during this time; art, music, and literature were also dramatically changing.
Men like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre not only wrote different pieces of literary works as well as political tracts, they were also highly respected philosophers during this time period. These two men are considered to be two of the most influential philosophers of existentialism. Camus and Sartre were not alone in their leadership of existentialism; other greats like Marcel, Jaspers, and Heidegger to name only a few also contributed substantially to this era.
Phenomenology was introduced into philosophy by Edmund Husserl and is said to be used more by philosophers than artists and writers who mainly studied existentialism. As stated by Moore and Bruder (2005), “In brief, phenomenology interests itself in the essential structures found within the stream of conscious experience—the stream of phenomena—as these structures manifest themselves independently of the assumptions and presuppositions of science” (p 174).
There were many key contributors to the introduction of phenomenology throughout different parts of the world. Emmanuel Levinas is said to be solely responsible introducing this school of thought into France. Levinas studied the works of Husserl and Heidengger extensively and tried very hard to break free from the stranglehold of Being. He tried to develop a philosophy that was rooted in the idea of otherness and separateness (Moore and Bruder, 2005).
Many philosophers have been attributed to shaping philosophical schools of thought into many different directions. History shows that all of these individuals helped influence Continental philosophy into what it has become today. Existentialism and phenomenology are only two of the branches on the philosophical tree. Many philosophers agree that these two forms or themes of philosophy were amongst the most influential of all.
Reference
Moore and Bruder, “Philosophy: The Power of Ideas, The McGraw-Hill Companies, (2005), (6th ed.).
Saturday, July 18, 2009
The Impact of Christianity over Philosophy
Written by: Kelly L. Hunter
Philosophy has had many influences in it’s time including that of Christianity and philosophy has influenced Christian ideals, beliefs, and thought as well. Many well respected philosophers of centuries past have also had a hand in molding Christianity into the religion that we have come to know in today’s world. One could say that Christianity and philosophy alike would not be what they are today without the other, from the rise of Christianity in the Western world, the impact on philosophy by deep-thinking minds, to principle Christianized philosophical issues.
Christianity was first recognized in the Western world during the early parts of the Fourth-Century when Constantine I granted that there be universal tolerance of religious beliefs and practices (Philosophers of, 2005). During this time period, a revision of Plato’s philosophical beliefs and teachings was created and became known as Neoplationism which had tremendous influence of Christian metaphysics. Plotinus is said to be the great philosopher of Neoplatonism and he believed that if he could ignore the trials and tribulations of worldly issues and focus his attention inward than he would be able to get closer to God, thus obtaining oneness with God.
Plotinus took Plato’s teachings of what he called “Good” and transformed this reality to represent God or the “One” (Philosophers of, 2005). He believed that God was above and beyond anything and everything else in the world. As stated in the text (2005), “God, according to Plotinus is indefinable and indescribable, because to define or describe God would be to place limitations on what has no limits” (Philosophers of, p. 77). Neither Plato nor Plotinus considered themselves to be Christian and with that in mind, they have been said to be the most influential philosophers of Christianity.
The original Christian people in fact started out being Jewish and later branched out from Judaism and started their own separate religion known as Christianity. The Romans did not particularly appreciate the Christian concept and were actually very barbaric in nature. The Romans believed that the Christians were atheists because they did not believe in Roman deities and many Christians were faced with persecution and often-times death. It is clear that even with the harsh times that were encountered by Christians; the belief that something greater exists kept their faith growing.
It is stated in the text that “Eventually, the predominance of Christianity in Europe came to define the framework within which most Western philosophizing took place” (Philosophers of, 2005, p. 77). Most of the philosophers of the Western Roman Empire that came after the time of Plato and Plotinus were in fact Christians. Although Plato and Plotinus are said to be the patriarchs of their time, they were not alone in the influence and development of Christian philosophy. Individuals such as St. Paul and St. Augustine also played major rolls in this development and school of thought.
St. Augustine began his own process of Christian philosophy by transferring Plato’s “Good” and Plotinus’s “One” into the Christian version of the word “God”. According to Augustine, “Time only exists in the mind” and time did not exist before God created humankind. As stated in the text, “It is sometimes said that St. Augustine is the founder of Christian theology” (Philosophers of, 2005, p. 81). Like St. Augustine, St. Paul also contributed greatly to Christian thought by formulating the many Christian doctrines.
Progression happens in every aspect of human life; Christianity as well as philosophy began when individuals started to question life and reality and eventually manifested into something much greater and most likely far beyond what original philosophical minds could ever imagine. Where would we be today if these individuals had not questioned the meaning of time, reality, or even God? The impacts of Christianity over philosophy have been tremendous and have not gone unnoticed over time. Many great ideas and beliefs were developed during the early years of philosophical thought.
Reference
Philosophers of the Hellenistic and Christian Eras. The McGraw-Hill Companies. 2005
Philosophy has had many influences in it’s time including that of Christianity and philosophy has influenced Christian ideals, beliefs, and thought as well. Many well respected philosophers of centuries past have also had a hand in molding Christianity into the religion that we have come to know in today’s world. One could say that Christianity and philosophy alike would not be what they are today without the other, from the rise of Christianity in the Western world, the impact on philosophy by deep-thinking minds, to principle Christianized philosophical issues.
Christianity was first recognized in the Western world during the early parts of the Fourth-Century when Constantine I granted that there be universal tolerance of religious beliefs and practices (Philosophers of, 2005). During this time period, a revision of Plato’s philosophical beliefs and teachings was created and became known as Neoplationism which had tremendous influence of Christian metaphysics. Plotinus is said to be the great philosopher of Neoplatonism and he believed that if he could ignore the trials and tribulations of worldly issues and focus his attention inward than he would be able to get closer to God, thus obtaining oneness with God.
Plotinus took Plato’s teachings of what he called “Good” and transformed this reality to represent God or the “One” (Philosophers of, 2005). He believed that God was above and beyond anything and everything else in the world. As stated in the text (2005), “God, according to Plotinus is indefinable and indescribable, because to define or describe God would be to place limitations on what has no limits” (Philosophers of, p. 77). Neither Plato nor Plotinus considered themselves to be Christian and with that in mind, they have been said to be the most influential philosophers of Christianity.
The original Christian people in fact started out being Jewish and later branched out from Judaism and started their own separate religion known as Christianity. The Romans did not particularly appreciate the Christian concept and were actually very barbaric in nature. The Romans believed that the Christians were atheists because they did not believe in Roman deities and many Christians were faced with persecution and often-times death. It is clear that even with the harsh times that were encountered by Christians; the belief that something greater exists kept their faith growing.
It is stated in the text that “Eventually, the predominance of Christianity in Europe came to define the framework within which most Western philosophizing took place” (Philosophers of, 2005, p. 77). Most of the philosophers of the Western Roman Empire that came after the time of Plato and Plotinus were in fact Christians. Although Plato and Plotinus are said to be the patriarchs of their time, they were not alone in the influence and development of Christian philosophy. Individuals such as St. Paul and St. Augustine also played major rolls in this development and school of thought.
St. Augustine began his own process of Christian philosophy by transferring Plato’s “Good” and Plotinus’s “One” into the Christian version of the word “God”. According to Augustine, “Time only exists in the mind” and time did not exist before God created humankind. As stated in the text, “It is sometimes said that St. Augustine is the founder of Christian theology” (Philosophers of, 2005, p. 81). Like St. Augustine, St. Paul also contributed greatly to Christian thought by formulating the many Christian doctrines.
Progression happens in every aspect of human life; Christianity as well as philosophy began when individuals started to question life and reality and eventually manifested into something much greater and most likely far beyond what original philosophical minds could ever imagine. Where would we be today if these individuals had not questioned the meaning of time, reality, or even God? The impacts of Christianity over philosophy have been tremendous and have not gone unnoticed over time. Many great ideas and beliefs were developed during the early years of philosophical thought.
Reference
Philosophers of the Hellenistic and Christian Eras. The McGraw-Hill Companies. 2005
The Historical Connection between Traditional & Modern Ethics
Written by: Kelly L. Hunter
“Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the philosophical study of moral judgments—value judgments about what is virtuous or base, just or unjust, morally right or wrong, morally good or bad or evil, morally proper or improper” (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p250). It was the Sophists who first came up with the idea that any moral judgments must in fact be supported by way of reason.
Socrates and Plato both agreed with the Sophists’ theory and through the years helped to develop and define (with their own theories) what we know as moral and ethical behavior today. The foundation to Traditional ethics is comprised of many elements, one being the influence of Christian philosophy introduced by St. Augustine.
St. Augustine may have been one of the most influential philosophers of his time but he was not alone in the effort to bring harmony to darkness. St. Hildegard’s ethical writings influenced a beginning to religious mysticism during the early centuries (Moore & Bruder, 2005). It has been said that she was one of the most important philosophers of her time as well as in the history of philosophy itself.
In today’s society, we seem to have lost a grip on the goodness and have become more involved with self. Evolution has taken its course through philosophy’s early views on how one should live their life; although the desire to possess good virtues and ethics are still at the forefront of humanity, times have changed and what were once controversial issues have now become more acceptable and less taboo.
Modern ethics and traditional ethics are linked through the past and one has evolved from the other. In a sense the more traditional ways were probably superior to the way that we live our lives today, however; we have achieved outstanding progress in accepting that the world is beautifully diverse and what might not work for you may work for someone else.
Reference
Moore and Bruder, “Philosophy: The Power of Ideas” McGraw-Hill Companies, (2005), (6th ed).
“Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the philosophical study of moral judgments—value judgments about what is virtuous or base, just or unjust, morally right or wrong, morally good or bad or evil, morally proper or improper” (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p250). It was the Sophists who first came up with the idea that any moral judgments must in fact be supported by way of reason.
Socrates and Plato both agreed with the Sophists’ theory and through the years helped to develop and define (with their own theories) what we know as moral and ethical behavior today. The foundation to Traditional ethics is comprised of many elements, one being the influence of Christian philosophy introduced by St. Augustine.
St. Augustine may have been one of the most influential philosophers of his time but he was not alone in the effort to bring harmony to darkness. St. Hildegard’s ethical writings influenced a beginning to religious mysticism during the early centuries (Moore & Bruder, 2005). It has been said that she was one of the most important philosophers of her time as well as in the history of philosophy itself.
In today’s society, we seem to have lost a grip on the goodness and have become more involved with self. Evolution has taken its course through philosophy’s early views on how one should live their life; although the desire to possess good virtues and ethics are still at the forefront of humanity, times have changed and what were once controversial issues have now become more acceptable and less taboo.
Modern ethics and traditional ethics are linked through the past and one has evolved from the other. In a sense the more traditional ways were probably superior to the way that we live our lives today, however; we have achieved outstanding progress in accepting that the world is beautifully diverse and what might not work for you may work for someone else.
Reference
Moore and Bruder, “Philosophy: The Power of Ideas” McGraw-Hill Companies, (2005), (6th ed).
Is A Person More Than A Physical Body? What Is Mind? What Is Thought?
Is A Person More Than A Physical Body? What Is Mind? What Is Thought?
Written by: Kelly L. Hunter
The phrase “mind, body, and soul” has deeper meaning than just being three words in the English language. Some philosophers believe that our body is simply an “Earth suit” that houses our soul and that humans are much more than just a physical form or body. The human mind is probably the most complex thing to understand; how it functions, how it communicates with the body, and how it can ultimately help the body heal itself. Our soul has been said to be eternal; it has also been said to be comprised of energies beyond our understanding. Olivia Sabuco de Nantes believed that the connection between the body and soul are linked by way of one’s brain (Moore-Bruder, 2005).
Although Sabuco was unable to solve the mysteries behind mind-body connections, she was indeed well beyond her years with her theories. It is because of her and those who followed after her that we have holistic knowledge today and a better understanding of how our physical form is dependent upon the cooperation of the mind and the soul. Without our soul we would have no mind or thought and without our mind our bodies would not be able to survive. Our bodies are made of the Earth and have evolved over long periods of time into the human form that we have become today.
Moore and Bruder (2005) state in the text that “It is worth mentioning that Sabuco also believed that the intimate connection between soul and brain means there is a close relationship between psychological and physical health and between mortality and medicine” (p. 107). I would have to agree with this theory because it is evident that our minds can heal or destroy our physical form simply by the thoughts that we produce.
Some scientists and philosophers believe that the happier one’s thoughts are, the healthier they will be and the longer they will live. On the same note, experts also believe that negative thoughts can lead to many different types of illnesses including death. With this being said I would have to say that one’s thoughts are very powerful and are capable of doing things that we cannot even begin to imagine. A question to ask one’s self is, “without thought, can the mind still exist”? I believe that without thought, the mind becomes lifeless and begins to deteriorate just as our bodies do when our mind dies.
It is obvious to me that humans are much more than just a physical body or shell that protects our soul. We are more than just a mind controlling our body’s functions; we are a soul, a force greater than our body and mind alone. I believe that our souls have lived many lives and our Karma from each life has determined where our soul will travel after each death. In my opinion, our thoughts are signals from the universe that direct our mind and ultimately our bodies in the many directions that our soul journeys.
As I stated before, I believe that our mind and our bodies rely and depend on the other for survival; however, I do not believe that our soul depends on either of the two. In fact I believe that our soul can survive anything on its own because I believe our souls are incarnates of god (the universe and nature) and are made of natural energies that flow through the cosmos.
Reference(s)
Moore-Bruder. “Philosophy: The Power of Ideas” (6th ed.) McGraw-Hill (2005).
Written by: Kelly L. Hunter
The phrase “mind, body, and soul” has deeper meaning than just being three words in the English language. Some philosophers believe that our body is simply an “Earth suit” that houses our soul and that humans are much more than just a physical form or body. The human mind is probably the most complex thing to understand; how it functions, how it communicates with the body, and how it can ultimately help the body heal itself. Our soul has been said to be eternal; it has also been said to be comprised of energies beyond our understanding. Olivia Sabuco de Nantes believed that the connection between the body and soul are linked by way of one’s brain (Moore-Bruder, 2005).
Although Sabuco was unable to solve the mysteries behind mind-body connections, she was indeed well beyond her years with her theories. It is because of her and those who followed after her that we have holistic knowledge today and a better understanding of how our physical form is dependent upon the cooperation of the mind and the soul. Without our soul we would have no mind or thought and without our mind our bodies would not be able to survive. Our bodies are made of the Earth and have evolved over long periods of time into the human form that we have become today.
Moore and Bruder (2005) state in the text that “It is worth mentioning that Sabuco also believed that the intimate connection between soul and brain means there is a close relationship between psychological and physical health and between mortality and medicine” (p. 107). I would have to agree with this theory because it is evident that our minds can heal or destroy our physical form simply by the thoughts that we produce.
Some scientists and philosophers believe that the happier one’s thoughts are, the healthier they will be and the longer they will live. On the same note, experts also believe that negative thoughts can lead to many different types of illnesses including death. With this being said I would have to say that one’s thoughts are very powerful and are capable of doing things that we cannot even begin to imagine. A question to ask one’s self is, “without thought, can the mind still exist”? I believe that without thought, the mind becomes lifeless and begins to deteriorate just as our bodies do when our mind dies.
It is obvious to me that humans are much more than just a physical body or shell that protects our soul. We are more than just a mind controlling our body’s functions; we are a soul, a force greater than our body and mind alone. I believe that our souls have lived many lives and our Karma from each life has determined where our soul will travel after each death. In my opinion, our thoughts are signals from the universe that direct our mind and ultimately our bodies in the many directions that our soul journeys.
As I stated before, I believe that our mind and our bodies rely and depend on the other for survival; however, I do not believe that our soul depends on either of the two. In fact I believe that our soul can survive anything on its own because I believe our souls are incarnates of god (the universe and nature) and are made of natural energies that flow through the cosmos.
Reference(s)
Moore-Bruder. “Philosophy: The Power of Ideas” (6th ed.) McGraw-Hill (2005).
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